Indian Literary Terms
Maharanishree Nandkuvarba Mahila Arts and commarce college
Year : T.Y.B.A. ( sem - 5 )
Subject : English
Paper : Exploring Indian Knowledge System : Text, Traditions and Worldviews.
Class Assignment : Presentation on Rasa Theory
Home Assignment : Dhvani Theory
Essay : Vakrokti Theory
Professor Name : Rachna Dave
Submission Date : 9/9/2025
Class Assignment
Home Assignment
Dhvani Theory
💠 Introduction
Indian literary criticism is rich with profound theories that have shaped how we understand poetry and aesthetics. Among them, 'Dhvani Theory', proposed by the 9th-century Kashmiri critic and poet 'Anandavardhana', stands as a cornerstone in Indian poetics. Introduced in his celebrated work 'Dhvanyāloka' ("Light on Suggestion"), this theory revolutionized the way poetry was appreciated by placing 'suggestion (dhvani) at its very heart.
💠 About Anandvardhana
Anandvardhana (820–890 CE), a Kashmiri Sanskrit critic, is the author of Dhvanyaloka, where he introduced the Dhvani Theory. He held that the essence of poetry lies in dhvani (suggested meaning), which goes beyond literal sense and figures of speech to evoke rasa (aesthetic experience). His theory shifted Indian poetics from ornamentation to inner emotional resonance and was later elaborated by Abhinavagupta.
💠 Dhvanyaloka
Dhvanyaloka ( Light on Suggestion ) of Anandvardhana is divided into four Uddyotas.
🔹First Uddyota : Definition of dhvani and explanation why it is the soul of poetry.
🔹Second Uddyota: Classification of dhvani (vastu dhvani, alankara dhvani, rasadhvani)
🔹Third Uddyota : Relationship of dhvani with other poetic concepts like alankara, riti, guna, riti marga.
🔹Fourth Uddyota : Supremacy of rasa dhvani and concluding arguments.
💠 What is Dhvani ?
The term 'Dhvani' literally means "sound" or "resonance," but in literary terms, it refers to the 'suggestive meaning' beyond the literal words. Anandvardhana argued that the 'essence of poetry lies not in direct statements, but in what is suggested or implied—a subtle vibration that resonates emotionally with the reader. This is why he declared: "Dhvani is the soul of poetry."
💠 Grammatical Definition
Aanadardhana defined Dhvani in Dhvanyaloka as,
" वाच्यवाचकभावातिरित्क्तोऽर्थो यः शब्देन ध्वन्यते स ध्वनि। "
▪️Meaning: The meaning (arthah) that is suggested by a word (sabdena), and which is beyond the directly expressed (vacya) and the indicated sense (vacaka or laksya), is called 'dhvani'.
" काव्यस्यात्मा ध्वनिः। "
▪️Meaning:Dhvani is the soul of poetry.
💠 Three Types Of Meaning
According to Anandvardhana, every poetic expression operates on three levels:
1. Abhidha
The literal or direct meaning of the words.
🔹 “The sun rises in the east.”
Literal meaning: Sun = the star, rises = comes up.
2. Lakshana
The implied or secondary meaning.
🔹“All the world’s a stage.”– Shakespeare.
▪️Literal meaning: The world is a stage (not literally true).
▪️ Indirect meaning: Life is like a play, and people are like actors.
3. Vyanjana
The suggestive meaning, which goes beyond the obvious and is the foundation of Dhvani.
🔹“I wandered lonely as a cloud…” Wordsworth, Daffodils.
▪️ Literal: I walked alone.
▪️ Suggested meaning (Dhvani): Sense of peaceful solitude, joy in nature, emotional resonance (santa rasa).
💠 Types of Kavya
Anandvardhana in Dhvanyaloka he also speaks about the three kinds of Kavyas depending on the role of dhvani (suggested meaning):
1. Dhvani kavya (Poetry of Suggestion)
The highest kind of poetry. Its soul (atman) lies in the suggested meaning (dhvani), not in direct or implied sense.
2. Gunibhuta vyangya kavya (Poetry with Subordinate Suggestion)
Here, dhvani (suggestion) exists, but it is secondary, while abhidha (denotation) or lakshana (indication) remain primary.
Suggestion adds beauty, but it is not the main essences.
3. Citra kavya (Poetry of Ornamentation/Wordplay)
Lowest kind in hierarchy.Beauty lies mainly in sabda alankara (figures of sound) or chitra alankaras like yamaka (alliteration, repetition), chiasmus, and visual patterns.
💠 Types of Dhvani kavya
1.Vastu-dhvani
When a word or line suggests some idea beyond the literal statement.
Ex.
🔹"The lotus closes at dusk,
yet waits for the sun again—
so does her heart in longing."
▪️Literal: Lotus closes at night.
▪️Suggested: The lover’s heart closes in separation but hopes for reunion.
2. Alankara-dhvani
When the suggested meaning itself creates a poetic ornament (like metaphor, simile, irony).
Ex.
🔹"Her smile—
a moonbeam on stormy waters."
▪️Suggested meaning: The smile shines amidst sorrow, creating a metaphoric ornament.
3. Rasa-dhvani
The highest form. The words suggest deep emotion (sringara, Karuna, vira, etc.), not just ideas or ornaments.
Ex.
🔹"He touched her veil,
and silence spoke
what words could never hold."
▪️Suggested meaning: Intense love (sringara rasa) evoked, beyond literal meaning.
Rasa-dhvani is considered supreme by Anandvardhana.
💠Application of Dhvani Theory on Tagore’s Gitanjali ( Poem 60 )
"On the seashore of endless worlds
children meet with shouts and dances.
They build their houses with sand
and they play with empty shells.
With withered leaves they weave their boats
and smilingly float them on the vast deep.
Children have their play on the seashore of worlds."
🔷 Application of Dhvani
1. Vastu dhvani (suggestion of idea)
▪️ Literal meaning: Children play on the seashore with sand, shells, and leaf boats.
▪️ Suggested meaning: Human life itself is like children’s play temporary, fragile, and fleeting against the eternal sea of existence.
2. Alankara dhvani (suggestion of ornament)
▪️ The symbolism of “sand houses” and “withered leaf boats” creates a metaphor of impermanence.
▪️ These images suggest the transient nature of human efforts, yet also the joy of creation.
3. Rasa dhvani (suggestion of emotion – supreme)
▪️ The dominant rasa here is Santa rasa (peaceful acceptance), mingled with gentle wonder at life’s cosmic play.
▪️The words suggest more than they express, leading to a deep spiritual reflection.
In Gitanjali (Poem 60), the literal description of children playing on the seashore becomes secondary, while the suggested meaning—life’s fragile yet joyful play within eternity—becomes primary. According to Anandvardhana's Dhvanyaloka, such poetry is Dhvani kavya, and since the soul of this poem lies in Rasa-dhvani, it belongs to the category of Uttama kavya (supreme poetry).
💠Role of the Reader
For the beauty of Dhvani to be realized, the reader or spectator must be a Sahridaya—a sensitive, attuned individual who can grasp the hidden meanings. Dhvani transforms the reader into an active co-creator of meaning, inviting imagination and emotional awareness to complete the poetic experience.
💠 Conclusion
Anandavardhana’s Dhvani Theory marks a turning point in Indian literary criticism by shifting focus from the surface meaning of words to their deeper resonance. By valuing the suggestive and emotional essence of poetry, it elevated literature to an art that connects intellect with emotion and the individual with the universal. Truly, Dhvani remains the "soul of poetry".
💠 Reference
▪️ Aanadavardhana, Dhvanyaloka
▪️Wikipedia: Anandvardhana
Essay
Vakrokti Theory
💠 Introduction
In the history of Indian poetics, Kuntaka occupies a special place for his remarkable contribution through the Vakrokti Siddhanta or the Theory of Oblique Expression. This theory was elaborated in his celebrated work Vakrokti-jivita ("The Life of Oblique Expression"). Kuntaka asserted that the distinctive charm of poetry comes from its unique style of expression, which deviates creatively from ordinary language.
💠 About Kuntaka
Kuntaka was a Sanskrit literary critic and poet, best known for his theory of Vakrokti (Oblique Expression). He lived around the 10th century CE and wrote the famous work Vakrokti-jivita, in which he explained how beauty in poetry arises from the special twist or crookedness in expression. Unlike earlier critics like Bharata and Anandvardhana, who emphasized Rasa and Dhvani, Kuntaka highlighted style—how words, meanings, and expressions, when presented in a unique or unconventional way, give poetry its charm.
💠 Vakrokti- jivita
Vakrokti-jivita is the only known work of Kuntaka, written around the 10th century CE. It is a treatise on Sanskrit poetics where he presents his famous Vakrokti theory. The title itself means “the life (jivita) of poetry lies in oblique expression (vakrokti)”. According to Kuntaka, poetic beauty does not depend only on rasa (emotion) or dhvani (suggestion), but mainly on the creative twist in expression at different levels of language.
💠 What is Vakrokti
The term Vakrokti is made up of two words:
Vakra (crooked, indirect, distinctive)
Ukti (speech, expression).
Vakrokti = indirect or striking expression .
According to Kuntaka, the essence of poetry lies in this obliqueness, which transforms simple words into art. The beauty of a poem is not just in what is said, but in how it is said.
💠 Grammatical Definition of Vakrokti
Kuntaka defines Vakrokti as:
“Vakra bhasa vakroktih”
(वक्रा भाषा वक्रोक्तिः)
🔹 Meaning: Vakrokti is a special or oblique mode of expression.
He further explains that when words, grammar, or style are used in a non-straightforward, imaginative, and aesthetically pleasing way, they create poetic beauty. According to him, Vakrokti is the very soul (jivita) of poetry.
💠 Six Levels of Vakrokti
Kuntaka explained that Vakrokti operates at six levels of poetic expression. Each level can be illustrated with simple Sanskrit verses:
1. Phonetic (Varna vinyasa Vakrata)
In this type of Vakrokti beauty created through sound arrangement, rhythm, or alliteration.
Ex.
🔹“Full fathom five thy father lies” (Shakespeare, The Tempest)
The repetition of f and l sounds gives musical beauty.
2. Lexical (Padapurvarddha Vakrata)
In this type of Vakrokti creative and original word choice.
Ex.In Ode to a Nightingale (Keats), he calls the bird
🔹 “light-winged Dryad of the trees”
Instead of just saying “bird,” he uses mythological, imaginative words.
3. Grammatical (Padapararddha Vakrata)
In this type of Vakrokti stylistic use of grammar and inflection.
Example: Milton’s Paradise Lost often uses inverted word order:
🔹“Him the Almighty Power
Hurled headlong flaming from th’ ethereal sky.”
The unusual syntax gives grandeur.
4. Sentential (Vakya Vakrata)
In this type of Vakrokti freshness in sentence construction.
Ex. In Hamlet, the line
“To be, or not to be: that is the question” The pause and balance in the sentence creates depth and emphasis.
5. Contextual (Prakarana Vakrata)
In this type of Vakrokti imaginative use of context within narrative.
Ex. In Macbeth, the dagger scene (Act II) – the imagery of the “bloody dagger” seen in vision heightens the suspense and horror within that episode.
6. Compositional (Prabandha Vakrata)
In this type of Vakrokti originality in the overall structure of a poem or literary work.
Ex. In Pride and Prejudice (Jane Austen), the whole novel has a consistent theme of love, class, and misunderstanding, resolved harmoniously at the end. This unity gives the novel its charm.
💠 Application of Vakrokti in My Poem
પથ્થર બની જા....
લોકો કહે છે કે તું તો ફૂલ જેવી કોમળ છો,
તો પથ્થર બની જા, કરમાઈશ નહી.
લોકો કહે છે કે જો તારી સાથે કોઈ દગો કરે,
તો પથ્થર બની જા,દુઃખ થાશે જ નહી,
લોકો કહે છે જો કોઈ તારી ઉપર અત્યાચાર કરે ,
તો પથ્થર બની જા ,પીડા થાશે જ નહી,
લોકો કહે છે જો કોઈ તને અપમાનિત કરે,
તો પથ્થર બની જા, અસર થશે જ નહી,
લોકો કહે છે જો કોઈ તને મેણાં મારે ,
તો પથ્થર બની જા, સંભળાશે જ નહી,
હું કહું છું તને પથ્થર બની જા,
જો કોઈ તને હેરાન કરે તો તેના પર ,
પથ્થર બની તું સાબિત કર.
💠 Explanation
In my poem, Vakrokti Theory is clearly applied through the imaginative use of contrast and symbolism. Instead of stating emotions in plain words, I have expressed softness through the image of a flower and strength through the symbol of a stone. The repeated phrase “become a stone” gives rhythm and emphasis, while the shift from what people say to what the poet declares adds originality. The poem thus conveys resilience and courage not directly, but through oblique and figurative expression. Hence, it becomes a living example of Kuntaka’s Vakrokti Jivita, where poetic charm arises from deviation from ordinary speech.
💠 Vakrokti as the Life of Poetry
For Kuntaka, Vakrokti is not an ornament or figure of speech alone, but the soul of poetry itself. Poetic language is marked by a special twist (vaicitra), which arises from the poet’s imagination and creativity. This obliqueness turns ordinary expression into extraordinary art, captivating the reader or listener.
💠 Conclusion
Kuntaka’s Vakrokti Theory celebrates the creative twist in expression as the very life force of poetry. By identifying six levels of obliqueness, he demonstrated that every layer of language from sound to structure can contribute to poetic beauty. Through Vakrokti, poetry achieves its power to delight, move, and inspire.
💠 References
▪️Kuntaka, Vakroktijivitam
▪️ Wikipedia: [Kuntaka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuntaka)
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